The origin of football

With the world cup right around the corner, have you ever wondered where the sport now watched by close to 3.5 billion people had actually originated from? It is considered the most popular sport with 250 million active players and billions of fans around the globe and yet its origins are quite unknown – let’s look at a couple of examples:

The Chinese competitive game cuju comes as one of the first possible origins, which had become a popular team sport during the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) where players would kick a ball into a designated area without using their hands – sounds pretty familiar.

A sport called harpastum in latin had originated in the Greco-Roman world and is also a valid contender for football’s origin.

The modern origins of the game can be traced to the British Isles with the England nationals team chant of ‘It’s coming home’ as a memorable part of the game – the slogan implies that England is the birthplace of football, and by winning a major competition the sport would be ‘returning home’ – as the last time that England had held a championship title was back in 1966. This origin is by major part true as the first football clubs had formed in England and in Universities such as Cambridge.

In fact the first international football match took place in 1870 between Scotland and England and in 1872 the rematch was considered the oldest match by FIFA – which is the governing body over football (Fédération Internationale de Football Association). The olympics in 1908 where the first place were national teams from around the globe fought against each other for ‘the world cup’, but to my surprise, while conducting my research I had found out that the world cup surpasses even the olympics in its popularity nowadays. This isn’t that surprising though considering that individual football leagues easily surpass US$1 billion in value.

The Brief History of Vogue

Called “high fashion’s bible”. Well-known for its impact on fashion, art and pop culture. Still craved in the printed version. Vogue is undoubtedly a legend and a brand itself, known by both the members of the fashion industry and people who are not keen on the latest trends. The magazine has a history which included constant breakthroughs, changes and iconic moments.

The first issue of Vogue was published by Arthur Baldwin Turnure in 1892 for a specific audience – New York’s elite. It concerned the situation on social affairs, leisure activities, traditions, books, music and fashion. The magazine changed in 1909 as it was bought by Condé Nast Publications. It became a magazine specifically for women, concerning beauty and fashion only. The first international edition, the British one, was published in 1916, while the second one was published in 1920 in France.

During the first decades of existence, fashion illustrations were placed on Vogue’s cover. The breakthrough happened in 1932 as the June issue had a colour photography on its cover. It depicted a woman in a swimsuit and a cap, holding a beach ball. During the 1930s, the number of front pages with the illustrations was gradually reduced and substituted for photo covers.

Between 1952 and 1962, Jessica Daves was editor-in-chief. She transformed the magazine by introducing articles concerning art and literature. Her main goal was to educate the readers and improve their taste concerning fashion. Her successor was Diana Vreeland who wanted society to treat fashion more seriously. It is said that she brought extravagance and luxury to the magazine. Moreover, she made Vogue more appealing to youth. In 1971, Grace Mirabella became the new editor-in-chief. She changed the magazine to monthly in 1973 as it had been published 20 times a year for the previous 25 years. Her target audience were young, working women of success as the 1970s were connected with liberation of women. She introduced interviews and health articles to Vogue and published first cover with an African American model.

The present era of Vogue is defined by Anna Wintour who has been editor-in-chief since 1988. Her first November cover was an enormous surprise for the fashion industry as a model on the cover wore both a high fashion Christian Lacroix jacket with gemstone cross and jeans. This outfit was the beginning of Wintour’s revolution in Vogue. She wanted fashion to be available to a wide audience. She was the first one to regularly place Hollywood actresses on the cover which later became popular in international editions of the magazine. Wintour also published Teen Vogue which has been present since 2003 and Men’s Vogue (between 2005 and 2008).

The magazine has nearly 30 international editions and recently underwent a huge revolution. The digital version has become popular which is connected with the presence of social media. The magazine constantly changes and it is probably a matter of time until a new breakthrough will occur.

Bibliography:

• https://glamobserver.com/the-history-of-vogue/
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vogue-American-magazine

The Wonders of the Ancient and Modern World

  The wonders of the world, of which there are always seven, no more, no less, consist of the most iconic and remarcable constructions of their age. This set of 7 great works of architecture are often divided into the original ancient wonders of the world, and their modern counterparts.

The seven wonders of the ancient world consist of such fine constructions as:

• the Great Pyramid of Giza
• Hanging Gardens of Babylon
• Temple of Artemis
• Statue of Zeus at Olympia
• Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
• Colossus of Rhodes
• the Lighthouse of Alexandria

     Unfortunately for us only one of these buildings managed to survive and is left to be seen for our own eyes. We are of course talking about the Great Pyramid of Giza which is also the oldest of the wonders surviving for a whopping 4600 years. Frankly we are lucky to have even heard about many of these structures as most have degenerated overtime to a state of complete nonexistence. For example, even the location of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon isn’t exactly known and many argue that they might not have existed in the first place and served just as a fool’s story and a poet’s dream- a romantic representation of “the eastern garden”.

     What about the wonders of the “modern” world? Notice how I’ve taken the liberty of putting the word “modern” in quotations. This is because the list of the seven wonders of the modern world are frankly an extension of our previous list- works bult in the olden days left for us to lay our eyes on their magnificence.These include:

• the Great Wall of China  
• Petra   
• Christ the Redeemer
• Machu Picchu
• Chichén Itzá  
• Colosseum
• Taj Mahal    

Other categorizations?

While we merely just glanced over the two most important subdivisions of the so-called “wonders of the world” many more subdivisions have been made, all of which are a fantastic collection of really important and worthwhile feats of human engineering.These include:

• Seven Natural Wonders of the World
• New seven Wonders of Nature

• New seven Wonders Cities
• Seven Wonders of the Industrial World
• Seven Wonders of the Solar System

Why the significance?

Where did this idea of categorizing and listing humanities and natures most beautiful/significant/spectacular structures come from? Greek historians such as Herodotus and Callimachus of Cyrene have been said to have made such early lists, but like the many of the wonders these primary sources have disappeared from history, this did on the other hand touch on our curiosity and need for discovery. Hence over the ages these great works have been set into different categories. Why the number 7 then? Because the Greeks believed it represented perfection and plenty, by reflecting the number of planets of the solar system known in ancient times. This stuck to our times and countless lists of this nature are in many cases a matter of personal opinion, but they do stand as a representation and selection of our kind’s greatest achievements. Give them a visit one day -you will not be disappointed.

A historical debate: The change in the balance of power in Europe between 1871 and 1900

World War I, the very first global military conflict, had a plethora of causes, both short-term and long-term. One of them was deeply rooted in a peculiar political and socio-economic process of 19th century Europe, albeit one that is sometimes omitted in the discussion about the War. It is the change in the balance of power widely established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which was not only characterized by fluctuations between the existing Great Powers, but also by the emergence of new ones (such as Germany and Italy). Even though some countries tried to preserve the status quo, in 1900 Europe was nowhere where it had been only 29 years earlier.

The creation of the unified German and Italian states radically changed the geopolitical situation on the continent. Now, the territorial heart of Europe was occupied by an economically strong and ethnically homogenous country. Furthermore, its Chancellor, von Bismarck, was an ambitious and experienced man, who could transform the country into a global power. ‘Old’ European empires (such as the United Kingdom, France, and Russia) were disturbed by the fact that Germany was far more powerful than Prussia had been. The unification of Italy in 1859 further contributed to the breakup of the post-Napoleonic balance of power, but its impact was relatively less important. The newly-established state was dealing with economic problems and deep internal divisions, so it was not as powerful as Germany was.

Using the economic and military strength of the country he was leading, Bismarck tried to redefine the existing balance of power in Europe. His foreign policy was solely based on diplomatic effort and aimed at keeping the continent away from the perspective of war. From then on, whenever a dispute arose, Germany was to act as a ‘broker’ between the Great Powers (especially Russia and Austria-Hungary). Another feature of Bismarck’s policy was the isolation of France. By doing so, Germany tried to prevent the threat of a “two-front war”. However, these efforts came to an end when Wilhelm II took power as Kaiser in 1890. He decided to pursue an aggressive policy of global expansion, known as the ‘Weltpolitik’.

The change in the balance of power was further characterized by the emergence of the alliance system. Even though the web of alliances created by Bismarck (e.g. Dreikaiserbund or the Three Emperors’ Alliance of 1881) aimed at preserving the ‘Holy Alliance’, it differed significantly from its predecessor. The situation in the Balkans was a bone of contention between Russia and Austria-Hungary, therefore, the cooperation between the two was difficult. Moreover, with the onset of ‘Weltpolitik’, the United Kingdom and France began to perceive Germany as a threat to their interests. The situation was particularly exceptional for the UK, which decided to end the ‘splendid isolation’ and engage in the affairs of the continent. These factors, along with the annulation of the German-Russian Reinsurance Treaty, gave rise to the creation of the Triple Entente.

The balance of power changed dramatically between 1871 and 1900. Multiple factors contributed to the process, be they the emergence of new regional powers, attempts to redefine the status quo in Europe, and the creation of the alliance system. It could be argued that that change had a lasting impact on the outbreak of the First World War, as it contributed to tensions between the Great Powers. In 1900, the post-Napoleonic order was practically non-existent and none of the key political players on the Old Continent strived to keep or revive it.

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2020

On 5th October, a team of physicians the Nobel Prize in Physiology or medicine was awarded to Harvey J. Alter, Michael Houghton and Charles M. Rice for the discovery of Hepatitis C virus.  What in particular did those scientists discover and why is it considered as a breakthrough worth the most prestigious prize in the world? 

Hepatitis C virus is one of the most bizarre pathogens which currently exist. It ranges in severity from a mild, flu-like illness lasting a few weeks to a lifelong and serious illness. The mild symptoms such as cough or fever may quickly evolve into cirrhosis or even liver cancer, both of which are deadly for humans and may result in their death. 

Although Hepatitis C virus  is not airborne like SARS-Cov2 and spreads predominantly through blood, it infects millions of people and results in thousands of deaths. It is estimated that there are currently more than 70 million people in the world infected with this pathogen and that only in 2016 more than 400,000 people died due to the symptoms caused by Hepatitis C virus. The pathogen is also a common cause of liver transplantations. 

The three scientists – Harvey J. Alter, Michael Houghton and Charles M. Rice – have carried out a thorough research of this virus for decades. In the 1970s, Harvey J. Alter discovered that most cases of posttransfusion hepatitis are connected to neither hepatitis A nor hepatitis B. In 1980, Dr Houghton became the first to identify the virus (find its genetic sequence), which was followed by the invention of a precise diagnostic test to identify the virus in the blood. Additionally, Charles M. Rice’s genetic experiments showed that the virus can be isolated in the laboratory and cause disease in the animal host, the chimpanzee (NY Times). 

The work of those three scientists resulted in highly accurate and effective blood tests for hepatitis C virus presence as well as in the development of highly efficient antiviral medicines. The latter fully cure the disease in 95% of the patients infected with the virus. 

Nonetheless, most people living with hepatitis C virus have not yet received a diagnosis. According to NY Times, testing rates in developing countries rarely exceed 10%. Moreover, the full eradication of the disease can be achieved only when the vaccine is discovered and evenly distributed around the whole world. This is what Dr. Houghton and other researchers are currently working on. Once the population is vaccinated and a particular proportion of society is immune to the virus, the so-called herd immunity will be achieved. 

Interestingly, Dr. Houghton highlights the great role of cooperation and the joint effort of thousands of scientists around the whole world  in all the aforementioned achievements. “Great science is often a group of people,” he said. “Going forward, we somehow need to incorporate that.” This view is also shared by Dr. Rice, who said: “We’re all a few in a cast of thousands,” he said. “I feel a little bit odd — a combination of humbled and embarrassed. I think there are many people who should feel very good about what they contributed today.” Hence, picking out only those three people out of the thousands of scientists may seem to some extent unjust. The Nobel science prizes have long been criticized for that. 

Therefore, it is highly important to take into consideration that those granted with such prestigious prizes, especially in the scientific areas, would never have made any achievements, had it not been for the thousands of other specialists who actively contribute to the enrichment of shared knowledge. The Nobel Prize is not a success of the individuals. It is an achievement of the whole society and a sign that our civilization constantly moves towards the discovery of truth. 

History of nuclear energy

No scientific discovery comes out of nowhere, it costs countless discoveries made by scientist all over the world. The same was with nuclear energy. It all has started in Germany, in 1895, where X-ray was first discovered by Roentgen. As the information spread around the world, more and more started to gain interest in this field. Only a year after a guy named Becquerel another phenomena, that was later evaluated by Marie Curie and her husband – spontaneous energy production, which was named radioactivity. Again, the process had begun, Ernest Rutherford started analysing radioactivity and noticed that there are two types of rays – alpha and beta radiation. He later discovered that the vast majority of an atom mass is concentrated in the genre – therefore expose nucleus, sometime after he also suggested the existence of neutrons and gamma radiation. Thanks to his work, he is called the father of nucleus physics.

The whole science is based on previous experiments and acknowledgements. Hahn and Strassmann decided to look closer at the paradox called splitting of an atom. It tended to release a tremendous amount of energy. Apart from the good aspect of that energy, some also found it as a way to produce bombs, based on the chain reaction. In 1942, the first one was created. Unfortunately, this has lead to the drop of Little Boy and Fat Man on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan on August 6th and 9th, 1945. The cities were devastated, with up to 250,000 people dead. It took many years for the world to realise the danger of it. The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) was signed on 20th September 2017 with the supervision of the UN.

Fortunately, not only was nuclear energy used to kill, but also to help. The idea of nuclear power was discussed earlier and has been found brilliant but one thing was anticipated to be impossible to overcome – calling the reactor. In 1951, an experimental liquid-metal cooled reactor in Idaho called EBR-I was attached to a generator in 1951, producing the first nuclear-generated electricity. Firstly it was used just to power the submarines as it wouldn’t need to refuel. The Shippingport reactor opened in 1957 was the first commercial reactor in the USA.

Seeing the success of the first nuclear power plant, through the 60s and 70s, many nuclear reactors were constructed for commercial usage. Its greatest advantage is that they work well and produce cheap, emission-free electricity with a very low mining and transportation footprint. France was the first country to strongly push towards it and ended up with 75% of electricity being from uncle power.

World nuclear energy production through years 1965-2010

Nevertheless not everything was as perfect as it seems to be. From the late 1970s to about 2002 the nuclear power industry suffered some decline and stagnation. It was mainly due to labour shortages and construction delays. The world has realised that it is not as cheap as anticipate. A nail to the coffin of nuclear energy were the accidents in Three Mile Island (1979) and Chernobyl (1986). The latter one has caused 42 acute deaths and possibly several thousand with long term high possibility of cancer. Additionally, the reactor explosion caused 350,000 people to be permanently resettled. These disasters contributed to the restriction of standards and further costs.

After almost 30 years of stagnation, wide awareness about climate change and need to restrict carbon dioxide emission (it is in a great part released during the combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, to produce electricity). Furthermore increasing energy demand worldwide and the decrease of natural resources has also contributed to the idea of “nuclear renaissance”. Nowadays, more and more countries are looking favourably on nuclear energy and plan to increase the energy share coming from it.

In March 2013, famous climate scientist James Hansen co-publishes a paper from NASA computing that, even with worst-case estimates of nuclear accidents, nuclear energy as a whole has saved 1.8 million lives and counting by offsetting the air-pollution related deaths that come from fossil fuel plants.

The Greek kind of love

The ancient Greeks are often mentioned as the people who created the base of the European culture, their mythology, philosophy and even festivals have contributed to the world around us from sports through ethics as far as to the modern trend for going to the gym. Nobody can oppose the idea, examples are everywhere the most visible ones would be the Olympics, theatre or even symbols and ideas used in mathematics nowadays. However, couple of the aspects of the Greek culture have been swept under the rug, they want to be forgotten by many and enhanced by others. It is something which was mentioned by many Greeks as fairly accepted, yet abandoned after the Roman Catholic church spread across Europe and changed many things in all the cultures of the continent. What I am talking about had such a different view of the public on it in Europe in 20th century from the one in ancient Greece that many paid with lives. The way homosexual love looked and worked like in Greece over two thousand years ago has been the cause of many disputes between researchers for many years. Some say it was not accepted, some say it was not mentioned in the public life and others say it was encouraged and thought of as manly and beautiful.

When it comes down to disputes on this topic the first person who is quoted is Pluto, once he said that same-sex lovers are more blessed than others and are closer to having an after-life full of happiness. Yet later in his life he describes the ideal city in which homosexuality will be treated the same way incest was. These two contradictory opinions of the same person start the conflict of researchers, who both have many sources to take from. Yet it needs to be remembered that ancient Greece was not one country, there were many smaller cultures and many of them fought each other and tried to be in opposition to the ones they hated. Propaganda could be used by one government to contradict a polis in which homosexuality was wildly accepted and therefore create a difference of opinion. Or the countries could simply have various societies in which some had no problem with this kind of love and others had. Another aspect to keep in mind is that ancient Greece was not a short period of time like one year. It was centuries that all the polis existed and the trends could change with wars and general politics again leading to a dissonance.  Unfortunately, not much is mentioned on the topic of women, by homosexual love in Greece people mostly mean men as those were still patriarchal societies in which women did not play as great a role as now. Our perception on the topic has been changing since the important publication of K.J. Dover in 1978.

The ‘pedagogical pederasty’ as some call it was supposed to be the main kind of homosexual love. It meant that a mature male took a youngster under his wings and taught him how to behave like a man, how to be a responsible adult. It was done by courting, a male was to give gifts and fight for the attention of the boy he wanted to be with, when the boy was interested he would announce it. It was a common manner as many sources state, especially among the aristocracy. However, it was not the same as homosexuality in the Western countries nowadays where both partners are looked upon the same way. Back in the days of Pluto the active partner was always to be the man with the beard in the relationship. Some sources indicate that in many regions a mature man who was the passive partner during the intercourse could be a subject of criticism and be ridiculed. However, some recent studies have shown that many vases show two mature men in an intercourse, also two boys. This indicates that it was a matter of time and place between which the conception of what is allowed and what is disgraceful changed.

The concept of a teacher and a pupil has been widely known for centuries, even Oscar Wilde included some concepts of it in his work. Yet many pictures from the ancient Greece oppose the idea that their main role was to educate, they might have been made simply seductive and to show the perfection of the human body as many pictures showing heterosexual relationships did. Also studies have shown that the number of homosexual relationships, or at least sources depicting them, increased after introducing democracy in Athens, which shows that not only the aristocracy was engaged in such behaviour. The ´middle class´ as we call it now back then did not focus as much on education as the richest, therefore the relationships could not be purely a relation between a teacher and his pupil. Another proof that the relationships were often equal and accepted is the idea of a perfect army Pluto himself created. The philosopher thought that an army of lovers would be undefeated. Such a division was created and called the Sacred Band of Thebes, the army consisted of 150 pairs of homosexual lovers who fought side by side. It took the army 33 years to be annihilated by Philip II of Macedon. However, the army did manage to win in many battles, one of them against the Spartans.

Many works have been written on this topic and a lot of them say different things about the attitude of all the Greeks towards homosexuality. It really is a matter of difference between ages and places in the world, which we now call the ancient Greece. The region cannot be taken as a whole and although in every polis homosexuality was present in the social life there were different attitudes towards it. Even the ´way´of practising such relations varied in every city. It might be long before we know definitely how it was, but it is certain that Greek culture was open to many things compared to the centuries that came afterwards, changing what we now call the foundation of the European culture.

How German soldiers who took part in the WWII were not sick.

Some people say they do not understand how a whole nation could become sociopathic in a short time and kill so many people who did nothing wrong. The answer is they did not become sociopaths nor psychopath (people are born psychopaths) nor had they been ´programmed´ to kill. The answer is it not as simple as some may think. The Germans were under the influence of human obedience, propaganda and used dehumanisation not to feel guilty because of their crimes.

There are many films presenting the cruelty of the Germans during the WWII, museums with every hall showing a different story, history lessons only on this topic. It all has a reason, during the war as many as 80 million people lost their lives either as soldiers or civilians, which accounts for 4% of the world population in 1939. It is the deadliest conflict in all human history considering the crude number of deaths, therefore it needs to be remembered as a statue of human deprivation, hubris and cruelty for every generation to derive lessons from it and never let the history repeat itself.

People who tried to diagnose the 24 most important people of the 3rd Reich who were captured after the war said that the men, although showing some signs of pathology or lack of empathy, could not be diagnosed as mentally ill and seemed fairly logical in their speech and reasoning. This indicated that there must have been some other reasons for the cruel behaviour. Rudolf Höss, the Commandant of Auschwitz, said ´I thought I was doing the right thing, I was obeying orders, and now, of course, I see that it was unnecessary and wrong. But I don’t know what you mean by being upset about these things because I didn’t personally murder anybody. I was just the director of the extermination program at Auschwitz. It was Hitler who ordered it through Himmler and it was Eichmann who gave me the orders regarding transports.´ This gives a hint at one of the most important factors- human obedience. A famous experiment by Stanley Milgram showed interesting yet terrifying results showing the extent to which humans obey orders. The experimenter tried to show that Americans were less obedient than Germans, however starting his research in the USA he was scared of any further discoveries. Milgram constructed an experiment in which the subject was supposed to ask question to a person (the subject did not know it is not a real person, they heard only sounds)and  had to give an electrical shock for every wrong answer the ´learner´ gave. The subject was told it will be an experiment on learning and that the shocks may influence the rate of acquiring knowledge. With every incorrect answer, however, the subject was to give a shock  15 volts stronger than the last. The subjects were informed constantly by the machine whether the number of volts was dangerous and could hear response from the ´learner´ (previously recorded voice). What Milgram observed in one of the first experiments was that more than 60% of the subjects went up to the 450 volts, the highest possible number and probably lethal (which they had been informed of beforehand). This showed that humans do obey even if the orders can be lethal in effect and the person hurt is giving strong signals of their pain. Many subjects protested during the experiment, asked to stop and see whether the ´learner´ was fine, yet not even half did in fact stop. In one of the transcripts of the conversation between the experimenter and a subject, the latter is constantly saying ´if something happens to him, you will be responsible´and then continues to shock the ´learner´. Milgram´s experiment showed that humans under orders are more likely to do harm to others and how without responsibility for our actions we are able to do more than under usual conditions. This indicates one reason a simple German soldier could be able to kill a Jew, a Pole or any other innocent person, they were simply given orders to do so and the responsibility of these acts was taken off their back.

When a human hurts another of his kind he or she may feel guilty, only bad people feel guilty as they did something unforgettable. This breaks a person´s image of themselves as a good and just being, which cannot be tolerated by the conscience. A conflict is created between two contradictory psychological truths, one of being a just and good person and one of being guilty of hurting another of one´s kin. This conflict, in psychology called cognitive dissonance, makes the person feel unease, which needs a solution, which can be in form of regret or many other things. Yet one way of resolving the dissonance is not to focus on ourselves but to wonder what did the other person do to deserve to be punished. If one is a just and logical being they could not possibly harm without reason, therefore the victim is guilty of something, for example they are Jewish and ´as we all know Jews are greedy´. This can go even further, if I did something while I am a good person then it must have been something moral and not outstanding, harming a human is in fact immoral, but my ´victim´may not be a human. In this way one can reduce a human victim to an object or a creature which does not deserve moral treatment, this process is called dehumanisation. In this way soldiers can protect their self-esteem as they are not really harming another person, only a mere creature. It is a mechanism which helps some forced to harm, but also it makes people hurt even when not ordered to do so, for example Hitler dehumanised Jews during the World War II. Hitler thought of himself as a good person because he did not order to kill people, in his mind Jews, Poles and other nations were inferior to Germans. Dehumanisation is another answer to the question of how Nazis could kill so many during the WWII even if the ones who killed the most were ordinary people taken into the army. A great example for this is the idea of concentration camps, people were not treated as equal, they were objects which were to be exterminated. Gas showers show how people were not considered as single units but as a group of rats. Dehumanisation is what makes soldiers treat civilians as rubbish, what makes people laugh at others and what every person does to some extent when we feel guilty after hurting others (depreciation is reducing somebody´s value).

Human obedience and dehumanisation are only two aspects of the various reason why Germans were able to do such cruel things. The mechanisms shown here are in use during all wars, whether it is the Roman Empire, the WWII or ISIS. Studying them helps us understand that these people do not differ from others, they had been simply affected by factors which triggered mechanisms which pushed their boundaries much further. However, an important note has to be made, psychology does not in any way try to pardon or take responsibility from the Germans who killed during the war. All crimes must be punished as actions against humanity and all must remember what was done, what psychology does is providing understanding of the cognitive processes which occur during such events. The victims of the cruelty of the 6 years of war shall remain in the hearts of many longer than any person alive today will ever live, never to be forgotten. Our duty is to understand the events of that time and never let the history repeat itself.